
GEOGRAPHY MANl/AL 



ELEMENTARY AND HIGHER 




F'RYE 



PW5 



FOR GEORGIA TEACHERS 



GIM yCOMPAW 




-i 



Class _JoA^-- 

Book L^%-ii 



Copyright N° 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



GEOGRAPHY MANUAL 



ELEMENTARY AND HIGHER 



BY 



ALEXIS EVERETT FRYE 

First Superintendent of Schools of Cuba. Author 

of "Child and Nature," "Brooks akd Brook 

Basins" and a Series of Geographies 



Boston, U.S.A. 

GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

QLU &t&enaettm press 

1904 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Tw» C©piea Received 

FEB 19 1904 

i Copyright Entry 

&LASS V XXcNo, 

9 -7 if / u- 
COPY 8 






CONTENTS 



Part I. — General Notes ....... 

The suggestions in this part of the Manual are appli- 
cable to both geographies of the series — Elementary 
and Higher — and in general to other subjects, such as 
history and reading. These notes suggest how to use 
the material of the book, — the maps, pictures and 
text. 

Part II. — Elementary Geography Lesson Notes . 

In connection with these special notes for the Ele- 
mentary Geography, teachers should read the general 
\ ' : < '-notes fin pagers ; \f3'4< ' 



Pages 
1-34 



85 



Copyright, 1896, 1903, 1904 
By ALEXIS EVERETT FRYE 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



TEAOHEKS' MANUAL. 



I. GENEKAL NOTES. 



1. Ideas vs. Words. 

No wide-awake teacher of to-day wastes his own time 
and that of his pupils by forcing them to memorize 
the exact words of a text-book. Such work is not 
teaching, and is not worth the smallest salary paid in 
the poorest school district. 

The pupil who studies the text of a lesson and then 
expresses the thoughts in his own words becomes master 
of the lesson. A pupil who merely recites parrot-like 
the words of the text may not have grasped a single 
thought. Even if every sentence were backed by the 
proper thought, . what a cruel waste of energy would 
result from trying to fix the exact words in mind for a 
day or at most for a week ! 

No teacher really believes in such work, for no 
teacher ever takes the trouble to force himself to mem- 
orize the text. The teacher who drives his pupils to 
this task does not seem to know how to teach them to 
grasp an author's meaning. He thinks the meaning 
must be in the words and that the pupils must swallow 
them. 

Definitions. — Of what use are definitions of hills, 
rivers, etc. ? In daily life do we ever use them? Must 
a child define in order to know ? Does he not know a 



2 teachers' manual. 

chair, a shoe, a horse ? — yet has he learned to define 
them? Nay, he learns to know such things by seeing 
or sensing them. 

Among countless objects that affect our life, why 
should teachers select the forms of land and water and 
claim that these few can best be known or studied 
through their definitions ? Is it because pupils can 
hide ignorance in empty words and thus make a good 
showing in that form of examination which calls for 
husks instead of grains of thought ? Let us hope not ; 
yet if it be true, the number of teachers of this class is 
small, for the thoughtful teachers of to-day show by 
their work that they believe in the study of things, — 
not mere word-shells. 

A pupil should learn to know a hill or a plain by 
studying the thing itself or a good picture of it. The 
teacher may use various devices to stimulate careful 
looking. Thus, he may tell the pupil to model, draw 
or describe it ; and the attempt to express in either of 
these ways will lead to closer looking and so to the 
gaining of clearer mental pictures. 

Let us illustrate by a brook. By one plan the pupil 
will learn the words, " A brook is a small stream of 
fresh water flowing over the land." By the other plan 
he will study the brook itself and may discover the 
following : 

"A brook is running water. The water is fresh. 
The brook winds about. Where the brook is swift the 
bottom is steep. In some places the bottom is rocky ; 
in other places it is muddy. The water moves slowly 
over the muddy bottom. The brook grows larger as it 
flows downward. In wide parts of the brook the water 



teachers' manual. 3 

moves slowly ; in narrow places it moves swiftly. The 
bottom of the brook slants downhill. The banks of the 
brook are in most places nearly parallel. The land 
slopes down to the brook on both sides and holds it in 
place." Etc., etc. 

Which pupil knows more about a brook, the one who 
can recite the definition or the one who has learned the 
above facts by seeing and discovering for himself? 
Which pupil has gained the greater power in the study ? 
Which has the knowledge better suited to his later life? 

It is claimed that the "book" definition is better 
worded than any a pupil can make. What of it ? The 
pupil will never use either. If such definitions are 
useful, why not also teach definitions of buttons, chairs, 
pins and countless other common objects ? 

The pupil has the right to learn to describe objects 
in his own words in order that he may gain in power to 
see and express. What right has the teacher to deprive 
him of growth, merely that in an examination he may 
appear to know what he does not really know ? 

Any examination that calls for definitions of geograph- 
ical forms, and that does not give opportunity for the 
pupil to show his power to see and to think, is certainly 
far behind the times. Which is the better question, 
" Define a brook," or " Tell what you know about 
brooks and their uses " ? Which tests the quality of 
the teaching ? Which proves the ability of the pupil 
to see and to think ? 

The superintendent or school-board that gives broad 
examinations, based on the pupils' power to think, 
rather than on memory of details, wields a powerful 
weapon in the cause of good teaching. 



4 TEACHERS MANUAL. 

2. Lessons on the Text. 

When told that pupils should not memorize the 
words of the text, many teachers are at a loss to know 
what to do with the text. Pupils, also, who have been 
dwarfed by learning words, words, words, do not know 
how to study the lessons. They have not been taught 
how to crack the shell and get at the kernel, — in other 
words, how to get the thought out of a sentence. This 
work should receive the teacher's first care in placing 
before a class any text, — whether geography, history, 
arithmetic or reading. 

To illustrate this step in the work, let us take the 
following text. Keep in mind that our aim is to teach 
pupils how to study the lesson, so as to make the 
thoughts their own. 

The Land and the Sea. 

Most parts of the sea near the land are shallow. 
Far from the shores the sea is in many places two 
miles deep, and in some places the bottom is four 
or five miles below the surface. 

The land and the surface of the sea have light 
by day and darkness by night. They have also 
warm and cold seasons. No sunshine reaches the 
deep parts of the sea. The deep water is always 
cold and dark. 

The land has many valleys and mountains, but 
a large part of the sea-bottom is a great smooth 
plain. 



teachers' manual. 5 

The wind blows sand and dust over the land 
and also makes waves on the surface of the «ea, 
but the deep sea is very still. Part of the rain 
falling on the land feeds brooks and rivers, which 
carry or wash loose soil down the slopes and help 
to wear valleys in the land. Thus the form of 
the land is slowly changed. 

Nearly, all the soil which is washed into the sea 
settles in the shallow water near the shores. The 
smooth bottom of the deep sea hardly changes at 
all, for there are no streams to wear valleys in it, 
and very little soil from the land reaches these 
quiet waters. 

The following lesson-plans suggest five different ways 
of teaching pupils how to study the text. Each of 
these plans, and others which the teacher's own inge- 
nuity will suggest, may be used to give variety to the 
work. 

Lesson-Plan i. Teacher. — "Read the lesson through 
carefully ; then take a paragraph at a time and write 
fully in your own words just what it tells. In this 
way write the whole lesson. Use words where you can 
that are not the same as those in the book." 

With these directions the pupils prepare their lesson. 
When the time of study is ended, they are called on to 
read their work. Thus : 

Teacher "William may read the first paragraph as he has 

written it." 

William "The water along the seashore is not deep. Some 

parts of the ocean are four or five miles deep, and many are two 
miles, The deep parts are mostly far from land." 



6 teachers' manual,. 

Teacher " Can any one correct William's thought? " 

Albert " The book does not say that the water is shallow 

near all shores, but in most places." 

Teacher. — " While William is correcting his work, Albert may 
tell how he has written the first sentence." 

Albert. — " Along nearly all shores the bottom of the sea is not 
far below the surface. Out in the ocean the bottom is farther 
from the surface than it is along the shore. Many parts of the 
sea are two miles deep. Some places are known to be four or five 
miles deep." 

Teacher " Did Albert get the whole thought ? " 

Thus the lesson proceeds, with the pupils noting any 
omission or error in thought, till the teacher is certain 
that the meaning of the paragraph is firmly fixed in mind. 
Then the next paragraph is taken up for discussion. 

Teacher. — " Mabel may read the second paragraph." 

Mabel. — " The bottom of the deep sea is never warm, because 
the sun cannot shine so deep through, the water. The sunshine 
causes the seasons, and so there cannot be any change from winter 
to summer in the deep water, nor from night to day." 

Teacher. — "Can anybody add to this paragraph? If not, 
Edith may tell what she has written for the same." 

Edith. — " The sun shines on the surface of the earth and gives 
warmth, but the sunlight cannot reach very deep in water. There 
is no sunrise nor sunset seen down there, and there are no warm 
summer days. The deep water is chilly and gloomy." 

Teacher. — " Grace may read her next paragraph." 

Grace. — " There is level land under much of the sea . . ." 
Etc. 

When the pupils have discussed every paragraph, 
there can be no doubt about the lesson being known. 
While the paragraphs are being read, the teacher goes 
quietly through the aisles, glancing at the work of each 
pupil to see that it is carefully done. Less than half a 
minute's examination of each paper tells the story. 



If the teacher wishes to impress still further the facts 
of the lesson, the pupils may be asked to close their 
books and write from memory what they have learned. 
This may be their language work for the day. All the 
papers need not be read, but the teacher may wish to 
look over the papers of those who are inclined to do 
careless work, to see if they should be told to do the 
work again. A glance at each paper will show what is 
needed. It is a great waste of time and energy to try 
to read all written work of pupils. 

Lesson-Plan 2. It is an excellent plan to have pupils 
study a lesson by writing a list of questions which shall 
bring out the various thoughts in the text. The pupils 
are told to make their own questions. If such work is 
new to the pupils they may not know how to begin. 
In this case the teacher may illustrate as follows : 

Teacher. — " Albert may read the first paragraph." 

Albert. — " Most parts of the sea near the land . . ." etc. 

Teacher. — " We do not wish Albert to remember the exact 
words, but we wish to know whether he knows the meaning of 
the paragraph. You may each write a question for Albert about 
what he has read." 

Grace. — " What parts of the sea are shallow ? " 

Mabel. — " Can you tell where there are any shallow parts of 
the sea?" . 

Edith. — " What have you learned about the sea near the shore?" 

Ada. — " What does shallow mean ? " 

Frank. — " What do you mean by the sea ? " Etc., etc. 

Teacher. — " Those are all good questions, and if Albert can 
answer them he knows the meaning of the words he read. You 
may all read the rest of the lesson and make questions about every 
part, as you have done with the first paragraph. Perhaps some 
sentences will need two or three questions to bring out the full 
meaning. 



8 teachers' manual. 

" When the time comes to recite this lesson, you may ask each 
other questions that you have written. Be sure that you can 
answer your own questions and then you can feel quite sure that 
you can answer the questions which others ask." 

With these directions the pupils study the text, — 
to search out the meaning in order to ask questions. 
When a pupil has made a good series of questions, 
the teacher may feel certain that the meaning of the 
text is clear and that the pupil has made the thoughts 
his own. The following may suggest a form of reci- 
tation for this lesson : 

Teacher. — " Grace may read her first question." 

Grace. — "What parts of the sea are shallow? " 

Teacher. — " Edith may answer." 

Edith. — " The shallow parts are along the shores." 

Teacher. — "Do all agree ? Does the text say so ? " 

Albert " The text does n't say that all the shallow parts are 

near the shores. It says the sea is shallow near most shores, but 
it does not say the sea is not shallow in some places far from the 
land." 

Teacher. — " How many of you agree with Albert ? Does any- 
one differ ? If not, Helen may ask another question about the 
first sentence or the second." 

Helen. — " What does shallow sea mean ? " 

Teacher. — " Ada may answer." 

Ada. — " Shallow sea is sea that is not deep." 

Teacher. — " Who can tell that in another way? — William." 

William. — "In shallow water the bottom is not far below the 
surface." 

Teacher. — " The book does not tell how far from the land the 
water is shallow. In some places the shallow part reaches only a 
mile or two offshore, but in other places the deep water begins 
at about a hundred miles from the land. When we think of an 
ocean thousands of miles wide, a hundred miles may be called 
a short distance. When we think of parts of the sea two or 



teachers' manual. 9 

more miles deep, we may call the water shallow even where it 
is several hundred feet deep. We mean that it is shallow com- 
pared with the deep sea. 1 

" Mabel may ask a question." 

Mabel. — " How deep is the sea far from the shores ? " This 
question, and many others, are discussed. 

If the teacher has good control of the class, he can 
greatly add to the interest of the lesson by allowing 
the one who asks a question to name the pupil who is 
to answer.- If the teacher sees that some pupils are 
slighted, he can easily remedy ' the evil by suggesting 
that no pupil be asked to recite twice until all have 
recited once ; or he may use a more direct means and 
name the pupil who is to answer. 

When the teacher sees that the questions do not call 
out all the leading thoughts of the text, he can assist 
by asking questions. It will be found a pleasing device 
to allow the pupil who has given a correct answer to 
ask the next question and select the one to answer. 
The tendency of this device will be to draw out the 
pupils who are most backward, for pupils take just 
pride in proving that they have found thoughts in the 
text which others have passed blindly over. A few 
lessons of this kind will cultivate the most careful 
study of the text. 

This lesson-plan does not call for the examination 
of the various papers written by pupils. Each takes 
some part in asking and answering ; moreover the 
pupils soon learn to feel that the great value in writing 

1 This note by the teacher is added to suggest that he should at all 
times be ready and free to draw on his own fund of knowledge. With 
this in mind, many notes on the lessons in the geography have been 
placed in this Manual for the teachers. - , 



10 teachers' manual. 

the questions lies in the fact that the answers are at 
the same time learned. The recitation gives all an 
opportunity to show how fully the lesson has been 
learned. If at any time a pupil finds that the class is 
passing over an important part of the text, he should 
be encouraged to show that he has a good question to 
ask. 

When the lesson is over, if the teacher wishes to 
impress the facts still more, he can ask the pupils to 
write from memory what they have learned. This 
need not be done, however, if the teacher thinks that 
the facts of the text are well known. 

Lesson-Plan 3. Now and then the teacher can vary 
the lesson-plan by placing a list of topics on the 
blackboard and asking the pupils to learn what the 
text teaches about the topics. A glance at a paragraph 
will tell the teacher what the topic is. For example, 
we will select from our sample lesson the following 
topics : 

1. Depth of the sea. 

2. Sunlight in the sea. 

3. Surface of the land and sea-bottom. 

4. Action of wind and rain. 

5. Changes in the sea-bottom. 

Review : — Tell how the land differs from the sea- 
bottom. 

The work of the pupils is now to find what the text 
teaches about each topic. They are to study the lesson 
till they can close the book and in their own words 
recite the thoughts of the text. 



teachers' manual. 11 

At first it may be wise to ask the pupils to write 
their answers to the topics. The teacher can then 
glance over the papers of the weaker pupils and help 
them. After a few lessons the pupils will be able to 
study without writing. 

The recitation may take some such form as this : 

Teacher. — " Tell what you can about the depth of the sea, 
Albert." 

Albert. — " The deepest parts are far out in the ocean. There 
are some places five miles deep. There are many parts of the sea 
near the shores that are not very deep." 

Teacher. — " Recite on the same topic, Mabel." 

Mabel. — " There are some deep places near the shores, but 
there are more shallow places. Many parts of the ocean are two 
miles deep. Most of the deep places are far out in the sea. Some 
deep hollows are four or five miles below the surface." 

Teacher. — " Does any one wish to ask Mabel or Albert a 
question ? " 

Edith. — "I should like to ask Mabel how she knows that there 
are deep places near the shores. The lesson does n't say so." 

Mabel. — " The text does n't say that the sea is shallow all 
along the shores, but that in nearly all places it is shallow. If 
all places are not shallow, some must be deep." 

Grace. — " How does Albert know that the deepest places are 
far out in the sea ? " 

Albert. — "I think the text says so." 

Teacher " Let us all open our books and find out. Can any 

one find a statement like Albert's ? " 

William. — " The text does n't say just what Albert did, but I 
think it means that. The first sentence tells about the sea near 
the land and does n't speak of deep places. The second sentence 
is about the sea far from the land, and this sentence does speak of 
the very deep places in the sea. I think that if there were still 
deeper places near the shore the text would say so." 

As the class agrees with William, the teacher calls 
for the second topic from Ada. 



12 teachers' manual. 

Ada. — " When the sun shines it lights the land and the upper 
part of the ocean. The sun warms them also. Sometimes the 
days are warmer than at other times and we have spring, summer, 
autumn and winter. The bottom of the deep sea has no sunshine. 
The sun can't shine deep in the water. It must always be dark 
down there, and if the sun's heat does not reach so deep it must 
be very cold all the time." 

Mabel. — " Is n't it a little warmer on the deep sea-bottom in 
summer than it is in winter ? " 

Teacher. — " What do you think about it, Grace ? " 

Grace. — " If the sun never shines there I don't see what differ- 
ence it makes whether it is summer or winter at the surface." 

Albert. — " If it is so cold why does n't the water freeze ? " 

If the teacher cannot answer this question, he should 
frankly say, " I don't know, but I will try to find out 
and tell you." The most learned man in the world 
cannot answer a tenth part of the questions which a 
little child may ask about any lesson in this book. 
Such questions are likely to crop out at any time in all 
studies. It is a great pleasure to be able to say now 
and then to a class, " I don't know, but I will try to 
find out." It fills the pupils with the same spirit, — 
" I don't know, but I will try to find out." If you would 
develop honor in children, be honest with them. If the 
questions are such as you ought to be able to answer, 
be sorry that you cannot, but be frank. 

On the other hand, if you can answer the question, 
do not hesitate to do so even though you know that the 
pupils cannot grasp the full meaning. The answer will 
show them the need of growth. Thus the teacher may 
answer Albert's question as follows : " The water is 
very cold, but not cold enough to freeze. Fresh water 
freezes at the temperature of 32°, but salt water must 



teachers' manual. 18 

be about four degrees colder before it changes to ice. 
In many parts the deep sea reaches 30°, but that is not 
cold enough to form ice. In the polar regions the sur- 
face water of the oceans may drop to 28° and freeze, 
but the bottoms of the oceans are never quite so cold, 
though parts are within 2° of it. The deep sea there- 
fore never freezes." 

Teacher. — " William may tell what he knows about 
the surface of the land and the sea-bottom." 

Thus the work goes on till all the topics have been 
discussed. The pupils receive their best growth, not 
from the study of the text, but from the contact of mind 
with mind in the recitation ; yet the study of the text 
affords a common ground for the meeting of the minds. 
- The last topic is headed "Review." This topic is made 
broad enough to cover the entire lesson and may serve 
as a subject for a written lesson, if the teacher desires. 
If the teacher is sure that the pupils know the meaning 
of the text, this written exercise may not be desirable. 
It will tend, however, to fix the facts of the lesson. 

Lesson-Plan 4. Teacher. — " You may study to-day's 
lesson so as to be able to answer any questions I may 
ask about it. As you study the text you had better 
think what questions I may ask and learn to answer 
them. Do not try to learn the words of the book." 

The teacher, as well as the pupils, should prepare for 
the recitation. He should read the text carefully and 
place a question mark near each word that suggests a 
question. When the class is ready to recite he can then 
readily glance at the catch- words thus marked and 
quickly frame his questions. '. . .. 



14 TEACHEKS' MANUAL. 

The questions may deal with the details of the text, 
as follows : 

What does the word shallow mean ? What is the 
sea f What parts of the sea are shallow ? What parts 
are deep ? How deep are some of the great valleys of 
the sea-bottom ? Etc., etc. 

Or, the text may deal with broader topics resembling 
more those of lesson-plan 3. In this lesson the pupils 
have not had the topics in sight for study, but have 
been learning to read or study a text without such aid. 
For the recitation the teacher may ask a pupil to 
tell what he knows about the depth of the sea ; the 
sunlight in the sea ; the surface of the land ; the sea- 
bottom ; the work of wind and rain on the land ; etc. 

Lesson-plan 4 is more difficult than either of the 
preceding, yet it is the way that pupils must learn to 
read and study books, — that is, without questions or 
topics. After leaving school they cannot find such 
helps in the books they will study. 

Lesson-Plan 5. Teacher. — " After you have studied 
to-day's lesson you may write for me what the text 
teaches. I do not want you to learn the words of the 
book, but give me the thoughts in your own words. 
As you study, think of some topics to remind you of 
the various parts of the lesson. These will help you 
to write in paragraphs. If you have good topics you 
will be less likely to forget the parts of the text. Per- 
haps as you study you can think what you will wish to 
write." 

After the lesson is written the papers may be collected 
and then distributed at random among the pupils. The 



teachers' manual. 15 

teacher then directs : " Read carefully the paper which 
you have and see if any thoughts are missing. If so 
make note of them at the bottom of the paper. Those 
sitting in the back seats may collect the papers and 
return them to the pupils who wrote them. Look at 
the notes on your own paper and see what you forgot 
to write." 

This exercise is of value in several ways. It often 
places an excellent paper in the hands of a backward 
pupil and so stimulates him to better work by giving 
him a better ideal ; it gives every pupil a chance to 
look at the lesson from the standpoint of some other 
pupil ; it makes pupils careful both in the reading of 
another paper and in the writing of their own ; it gives 
the teacher opportunity to move through the aisles as 
the pupils are studying the papers and to note the work 
of the backward pupils. The brighter ones need little 
attention, but they get what they do need, — namely, 
practice in getting and giving thought. 

Do not feel that every paper should be carefully read 
by the teacher. It is a great waste of time to try to 
correct every mistake. Select three or four from each 
lesson and before you realize it hundreds of minor 
errors will be outgrown. In fact the unusual errors will 
correct themselves, or will be corrected without the 
teacher's aid. Let the teacher direct his energy against 
the greatest fault. 

Comments. — Teachers whose ideal rises no higher 
than the assigning of lessons to be learned word for 
word, do not of course wish to use text that describes 
or explains. If the object is to teach empty words, a 



16 teachers' manual. 

child can memorize the sentence, " A plain is level 
land," more quickly than two or three pages of text 
explaining how the various kinds of plains were formed, 
— some along the banks or at the mouths of rivers ; 
others by the slow uprising of smooth sea-bottoms ; 
others by the spreading of lava over great areas ; others 
by the draining of large lakes ; etc., etc. By the former 
plan he knows nothing more than a name for level land ; 
by the latter plan he knows, not only how the vast 
plains of the earth were formed, but also why some 
are suited to produce wheat, cotton, grass, etc., while 
others are barren. 

For actual teaching, — not mere word-learning, — 
the text which fully describes and explains is far 
simpler than the definitions and other text which for 
many years have been trimmed and pruned till not a 
leaf, twig or even a branch is left on the worm-eaten 
old word-trunks. It is the writer's firm belief that no 
teacher who has tried to teach text by lesson-plans like 
those above (and the number of such teachers is legion) 
will ever long for the drudgery of driving pupils to 
crowd their minds with the exact words of any 
geography. 

Moreover, pupils should be trained to read or get 
thought from the kind of text which will be constantly 
before them in later life, — in newspapers, magazines, 
works on travel, history, biography and general litera- 
ture. Such works consist of descriptive text never to 
be memorized word-for-word, but from which the reader 
is to glean the grains of thought. 

In other words, the full descriptive text is not 

ONLY. THE EASIEST TO TEACH, BUT IT IS THE ONLY 
KIND FROM WHICH PUPILS CAN BE TAUGHT TO GET 
AND GIVE THOUGHT ! 



teachers' manual. IT 

3. Text in Small Type. 

The following note appears in the Preface of the 
Higher Geography: "The text which needs most care- 
ful study is in the large type. The descriptive matter 
in small type does not call for close study, but may- be 
used for supplementary reading." 

These small-type notes fill out the thoughts expressed 
in the large type, and often explain or describe features 
or phenomena of general interest, yet not essential to 
a brief course in geography. 

To illustrate the use of text in small type, we will take 
a note from page 165 of the Higher Geography, as follows: 

" Fossil elephants are found in the gravelly river 
banks of the Siberian tundras. These animals had 
woolly coverings that fitted them to live in the cold 
plains. The ' woolly elephants ' are unlike any now 
living on the earth ; yet the flesh of these great beasts, 
after being buried perhaps for many centuries in the 
frozen ground, is sometimes found well preserved and 
is eaten by dogs. The tusks of these fossil woolly 
elephants have for a long time supplied part of the 
ivory so finely carved in China and Japan." 

When the lesson containing this small-type note is 
assigned to the class for study, the teacher may say, 
"You need not study the part of the lesson in small 
type, but read it carefully and find out where the people 
of Japan and China obtain some of their ivory," — or, 
the teacher may simply say, "Read the note in small 
type and find out what it tells about ivory." 



18 teachers' manual. 

All that is needed to guide the pupils in the study 
of the matter in small type is a topic for each leading 
thought. Many of these notes need no further study 
than comes from reading and briefly discussing them 
during the recitation period. Teachers may judge that 
some of the notes are worthy of close study according 
to the plans suggested for the text in large type. On 
the other hand, the teacher may decide to pass over 
some parts of the text in large type, treating it like 
small type. 

4. The Use of Pictures. 

The pictures -are an essential part of the geography 
and deserve as careful study as the text or the maps. 
Nearly all the pictures were engraved directly from 
photographs and are true to nature in all details. Great 
care was used to select only typical views. 

The various pictures are not all to be studied in one 
manner. Some are suitable to describe in words. 
Pupils may model or draw others, or parts of them. 
The picture of a Lapland family, on opposite page, will 
serve as an example of one suitable to describe. The 
teacher may assign the study work as follows : 

Teacher. — " Write what the picture shows you about 
the Lapps and the way they live." 

Pupils will readily see that the Lapps wear thick 
coats and warm caps ; they bind up their legs ; they 
live in a hut made of sods ; the hut has a wooden door 
that swings out : the hut is rounded in form ; it is low 
and small for so many people ; the hut is dark ; it has 
no windows ; etc., etc. 



20 teachers' manual. 

If pupils are not guided by the teacher, they may 
ramble too much in the description. It may be well to 
ask them to tell what they can about one object before 
going to another. 

The lesson may take the form of studying from topics. 
The teacher places upon the blackboard a few guiding 
words, — as people, deer, hut, — and asks the pupils to 
write what they can about each. 

When they have been trained to see and describe, 
the work may take a broader basis. Thus, the teacher 
may ask such questions as these : 

" What is there in the picture to show whether these 
people live in a rainy land or in a dry one? " 

Pupils readily see that without rain there would be 
no grassy sods for the hut; no moss nor branches for 
the reindeer; no wood to burn,; no wood for the door- 
way, etc. 

They can also find proof that the air is cold, in the 
way the hut is built; the coats, caps and boots worn 
there ; the mittens on the girl's hands ; the fire in the 
hut; etc. Perhaps some pupils know that reindeer 
live in cold lands. 

Even if the teacher were to ask whether these people 
read books and newspapers, the pupils might judge after 
seeing how dark the hut is inside, with no windows; 
how cold the air must be outside ; also, how lacking in 
intelligence the faces seem. 

After the pupils read the . text and learn that the 
reindeer live in a land that is snowy in winter and in 
places marshy in summer, they may be led to still 
closer study of the picture, — to see, for example, how 
well fitted the broad hoofs of the deer are for travel 



21 



over the snow or the marshy tundras, and also for 
scraping away the snow to find moss ; how the sods 
are placed on the hut, to shed rain or snow water ; how 
the binding of the boot-legs helps to keep the warmth 
in, and the snow or water out ; etc. Locate Lapland 
on the map of Europe. 

This picture shows more about the life of the Lapps 
than could be told in a long chapter of text. Unless 
such pictures receive careful study, the geography is 
not used to best advantage. 

Pictures as Models. — Many of the pictures in the 
geography were selected as types of land and water 
forms for modeling. The sand or the clay is merely 
the means by which the pupils are led to observe the 
forms in the pictures. 

Take, for example, the two pictures on following page. 
The first shows a volcano with a lava-flow between the 
two river branches. The second picture shows the 
same region after ages of weathering and erosion. The 
lava now rises as a mesa, : — a common form in our 
western states. The volcano now appears only as a 
remnant or "neck" of hard lava that once filled the 
opening in the volcano. 

If any teacher wishes to prove the value of sand or 
clay as a means of leading to careful seeing, let him 
model the forms in these two pictures, — first, the 
young volcano with its setting of bluffs, valley and 
lava-flow ; then change the same model so as to show 
the mesa and neck. Do not simply try to imagine 
what the work would be, but do the tvork itself, — 
actually model the two pictures and the result will 
prove a pleasing surprise, 



22 



teachers' manual. 



Model the pictures as if looking down on them from 
above. Slight portions must of course be supplied from 

IlplRlliHi 




Young Volcano. 



the imagination, yet this part of the work has great 
value in raising the question as to what forces must 




Mesa and Volcanic Neck. 



have shaped the unseen portions and, therefore, what 
the shape must be. 



teachers' manual. 23 

When preparing to teach the various lessons, the 
teacher can readily select such pictures as are best 
suited for modeling. This work with clay or sand is 
not essential, but it is certainly very helpful. If the 
modeling cannot be done during school hours, many 
pupils may be led to try the work at home. 

Many of the pictures, or parts of them, are suitable 
for drawing, — especially plants, animals, simple build- 
ings, diagrams and some of the land and water forms. 
The drawing is simply a means of leading pupils to 
observe more closely. If any teacher doubts the value 
of this device, let him try to draw these little snow 
crystals and see what beauty he finds in them. 




5. The Use of Maps. 

Maps should be studied like pictures. The aim of 
the map study should be, not only to gain knowledge 
of the world's chief features, but also to gain power to 
read maps, — that is, power to get thought from maps 
as from text. 

The study of map questions alone will not develop 
the needed power. In fact, the best map study can be 
done without the usual questions. 

Let us select a lesson on the relief map of North 
America. Our aim will be to lead the pupils to read 
the map. With the geographies open at the page con- 
taining the relief map, the teacher says : " What does 
the map show you about North America ? " 



24 teachers' manual. 

At first the answers will be rambling, and the teacher 
wishes them to be, for the pupils need a general view 
of the entire map. Thus, the answers may come as 
follows : 

"There are high mountains along the west side. 
North America is wide at the north and narrow at the 
south. There are low mountains in the east. The 
middle of the continent is a great plain. The eastern 
coastline is more irregular than the western. There 
are several large lakes in the plain." Etc., etc. 

When the pupils have discovered the relations of the 
principal features, the work may be made more specific 
by saying to the class, " Tell me more about the great 
western highland." 

The pupils will see that it is very long ; its ranges 
extend northwest and southeast ; it is highest not far 
from the southern end ; the middle part is widest ; the 
highest ranges are on the east and west sides of the 
highland ; three large rivers from the highland flow to 
the sea on the west ; etc. 

" For another lesson, the teacher may direct the class 
to tell what the map shows about the great central 
plain ; or the eastern highland ; or the coastline ; or 
the rivers. This work may be oral or written. If one 
or two of these topics are assigned for a study period, 
the answers will form an excellent reading lesson ; 
moreover, by having the answers read aloud, pupils can 
find out what important parts of the map they failed 
to see. 

At first little attention need be paid to names of 
features on the maps. As soon as the teacher wishes 
pupils to learn the names, he may assign a lesson as 



teachers' manual. 25 

follows : " Write a description of the surface of North 
America, using any of the names you wish, as shown 
on the hey map opposite the relief map." This work 
may be varied according to the lesson-plans suggested 
for the text in the preceding pages. In fact, the same 
plans may be used for text, maps or pictures. 

The map studies in this series of geographies are 
carefully graded, so that pupils are made to rely more 
and more on their own seeing. Thus, compare the map 
studies on North America with those on Africa or 
Australia. In the latter the pupils are made to rely 
more fully on their own power to read the map and 
gather the facts for themselves. Pupils gain this 
power very quickly under proper guidance. 

It would perhaps be a good plan to use the map 
studies given in the geography, after the pupils have 
made a careful study of the map itself but not before. 
These will serve to review what the pupils have dis- 
covered and will also help to group or relate the im- 
portant facts. 

6. Map Drawing. 

Map drawing is a device for training pupils to see or 
to read maps. The first question for the teacher is 
this : What should a pupil be led to see in a map ? 
The second question is : How should he be led to 
see ? 

First. Pupils should know the general shape of a 
continent ; the general directions of the coastlines ; the 
great peninsulas and arms' of the sea that affect the 
climate of large natural regions ; important commercial 



26 teachers' manual. 

bays and harbors. They need not know the details of 
coastlines, which exert little if any influence over the 
life of the continent. 

Finely finished maps, showing hundreds of details 
which are worse than worthless • in theiriind, — simply 
clogging the memory or crowding out the broader and 
more useful knowledge of general features, — might 
look pretty if they did not serve to remind us of a great 
waste of time and energy. Pupils should be trained 
to draw carefully such parts of a map as are worth 
remembering. 

The following account of actual lessons may suggest 
a simple plan for teaching map drawing 1 : 

First Lesson. Teacher. — " Turn to the simple relief 
map of North America, in the supplement. Draw a 
straight line showing the general direction of the 
northern coast." 

" Look closely at the map and then at your line. 
Can you do better ? Try again." 

This work was repeated till the pupils could readily 
draw the line in the proper position. 

Teacher. — " Draw a line showing the general direction of the 
east coast." This line was drawn again and again, till fixed in 
mind ; then the pupils learned to draw a line for the west coast. 
No attempt was made to connect the three lines. 

Teacher " Which is the longest line? " 

Pupil. — " The west line is the longest." 

Teacher. — " How do the north and east coasts compare in 
length?" 

Pupil. — " They are about equal." 

1 Pupils may work at the blackboard. If there is not enough 
blackboard room for the entire class, part can draw on paper. 



TEACHEBS' MANUAL. 27 

Teacher. — " Now draw the three lines together, showing the 
general directions of the coasts." 

"Compare with the map and try again." " Try once more." 
So the work went on till the pupils could readily indicate the 
general shape of the continent. 

Second Lesson. Teacher. — "Study the relief map 
and then draw the general shape of North America, by 
using only three straight lines." This was repeated 
three times in order to fix the shape in mind. 

44 Now draw the northern coastline, as it appears on 
the map. Compare with the map and try to improve 
your drawing. Draw the north coast again." 

" Practice drawing the east coast till you can draw it 
from memory." 

" Draw the north and east coasts together." 

Third Lesson. Teacher (after a review of lesson 2). 
— " Practice drawing the west coast. Study the map 
each time you draw." 

"Now draw the entire coastline of the continent. 
Compare carefully with the map and draw again. Re- 
peat till you can draw it from memory." 



In teaching map drawing, no construction lines are 
needed except such as pupils discover in the relative 
directions of coastlines. These directions may easily 
be judged. The effort to discover and draw tends to 
fix the lines in memory. 

The above lessons on North America will serve to 
illustrate one plan of training pupils to draw the out- 
lines of the continents. The general shapes of South 
America and Africa can be shown by three lines. 



28 teachers' manual. 

Australia is so simple that pupils can sketch it off- 
hand, without first indicating the general directions by 
straight lines. Europe and Asia may each call for four 
lines, though three serve very well. 

The value of this work is in leading the pupils to 
discover for themselves the general directions of the 
coastlines. 

If the class is to use the device of sand modeling, 
the mountains and streams can be shown on the raised 
sand maps and need not be taught by drawing ; but if 
the sand table is not to be used, the pupils should draw 
the rivers and mountains. The guide maps in the 
supplements of the geographies suggest the amount 
of details that a class may reasonably be expected to 
memorize. 

These guide maps are based on several principles, 
among which are these : (1) The coastlines show the 
chief indentations and projections which affect the 
climate of large regions. (2) The rivers on the maps 
show where the principal slopes of the river basins 
meet. (3) The mountain ranges are those which form 
the chief divides between the large river basins. 

The relief maps in the supplements show the com- 
parative areas of the continents. These areas are also 
shown on the various globe maps in the geography, as 
well as on the colored relief maps, pages 17 to 23. 

7. Use of Molding Sand and Clay. 

Map modeling, like sketching or drawing, is a means 
of arousing and directing mental activity. Being simply 
a device, sand modeling may or may not be used, as 



teachers' manual. 29 

teachers judge best. A few suggestions may prove 
helpful to those who model in sand. 

In the study of a school district the attempt to model 
hills, valleys, plains, etc., using either nature or good 
pictures for models, leads pupils to look closely at the 
forms ; but the sand should never be used in the place of 
nature or pictures of the same. 

In the study of a continent, molding sand may be 
used to show the main slopes and other general features; 
but the character of the surface, — that is, whether 
rocky, sandy or loamy, fertile or barren, young or old, 
— can best be learned from pictures and text. 

Care of Sand. — Fine sand of any kind can be used. 
Iron-molder's sand is excellent, when sifted. 

Keep the sand moist by sprinkling upon it a little 
water each day after using. Do not try to mix the 
sand while wet, but let it stand over night and the 
water will filter evenly through it. If kept in a covered 
box it will need but little water. The exact amount 
must be learned by practice. The sand retains its 
form best when only slightly damp, and should never 
be wet enough to stick to the hands. 

The Sand Table. — Make a table-top about three by 
four feet, with a rim raised two inches. Use seasoned 
wood. 

Place the top on a small table or stand, about 32 
inches in height. Fasten at one end by hinges so that 
it may be tipped towards the pupils. Strips of wood, 
like those used to hold up piano-tops, may be used to 
support it at any angle. 

A zinc-lined drawer placed under the table-top will 
be found convenient for holding the sand, although it 



30 teachers' manual. 

can be kept in any common box or bucket. A coat or 
two of blue paint on the table will tend to preserve it 
and give a good background for the sand. 

Model Tins. — In many schools each pupil is supplied 
with a tin tray upon which he models while the teacher 
is making a large map on the sand table. This device 
insures individual attention and work by requiring all 
pupils to model at the same time. 

Model tins can be supplied by any tinsmith. They 
are simply shallow pans. They should be made of stiff 
tin, 14 by 20 inches, hemmed, rimmed one-half inch, 
with the hem turned out and corners soldered. 

Potter's Clay. — Potter's clay, such as is used in 
kindergartens and primary schools, is excellent for mak- 
ing careful models of natural forms of land and water, 
either from nature or pictures of the same. 

Some teachers use putty, papier m&che or modeling 
wax for making models of maps that are to be kept for 
a long time. We should not forget that the making of 
the map, and not the map itself, is of greatest value to 
the pupil. It will therefore doubtless be found that 
sand is the best material for general modeling. 

8. Map Modeling. 

A marked fault in geography work is the attempt to 
teach too many details of relief, outline and location. 
Pupils are often forced to learn the names of hundreds 
of unimportant forms of relief, as well as places, which 
teachers themselves cannot retain in memory. There 
are not too many studies in the public schools, but there 
is too much study of worse than worthless details. The 



teachers' manual. 31 

chief purpose of the simple relief maps in the various 
supplements is to indicate the few essential features 
of relief of the continents. 

Before beginning to model a continent, — for example, 
North America — the teacher and the pupils should 
learn to draw the general outline. Practice drawing 
upon the blackboard, and make the outlines of the 
maps as large as they will be on the sand table. 

Spread about two quarts of damp sand in a very thin 
and even layer over the table. Draw the outline of the 
map in the sand. Brush all the spare sand into one 
corner of the table. 

Next build up the great plateaus — not mountain 
ranges. On a table-top three by four feet, use a scale 
of about one fourth of an inch for 1000 feet. As the 
chief object of the modeling is to show the relative 
positions of main slopes, do not waste time in making 
exact measurements of the depth of the sand. What the 
eye cannot readily detect cannot wrongly impress the 
minds of pupils. Lay stress on the slopes rather than 
on the depth of the sand. 

Thus, model the broad plateau in the western part of 
the continent. Let it extend the entire length of the 
Pacific coast. Notice that the high land spreads from 
the Sierra Nevada and Cascade range to the Rocky 
mountains, and thence descends gently eastward into the 
great central river basins. 

At the isthmus of Tehuantepec the highland drops 
into low hills. The plateau of Mexico is about 8000 
feet high, — the ranges being much higher. The 
average height of the Great Basin is about 4000 feet. 
There is a general descent of the western plateau from 



32 teachers' manual. 

Mexico to the Arctic coast. The plateau level in Colo- 
rado is about 6000 feet above the sea. 

It is an easy matter to estimate the needed depth of 
the sand on the table. The 800 feet in Mexico may be 
shown by two inches ; but if this depth is too great for 
convenient modeling — owing to the narrowness of 
Mexico — do not hesitate to make it lower. The 
height of the Great Basin will be shown by one inch 
of sand. 

Next model the plateau of the eastern highland, 
extending from Alabama to Labrador. The general 
level is a little under 2000 feet. Make the depressions 
for the St. Lawrence, Champlain, Hudson and Mohawk 
valleys. From the region of the Great Lakes build the 
Height of Land westward towards the Rockies, — the 
elevation in the lake region being about 1000 feet above 
sea level. Next model the low plateau on the east side 
of the Mackenzie basin. 

From all the highlands thus built, model the slopes 
of the river basins forming the great central plain. 
Make the slopes so that they will meet in the beds of 
the large rivers. Thus the slopes from the Rocky and 
Appalachian mountains meet in the bed of the Missis- 
sippi. The Ohio and Missouri rivers show where the 
southern slopes from the Height of Land meet the 
slopes from the Appalachian and Rocky mountains. 
Lead the pupils to think of river beds as the lines along 
which slopes meet at their lower edges. 

Model the Pacific and Atlantic slopes. 

Do not forget that the prime object of the modeling 
is to show relative positions of main slopes ; therefore, 
see that every portion of the map shows slope. 



teachers' manual. 33 

Next build the mountain ranges. Lead pupils to 
think of the ranges as marking the upper parts of some 
of the slopes. Others do not end at the crestlines of 
ranges, but blend with other slopes in plains, as in many- 
parts of the Height of Land. 

The following principle is suggested to guide 
teachers in the selection of important ranges for model- 
ing : Model the ranges which divide great river basins. 
Pay no attention at this stage to the location of particu- 
lar peaks, but simply give the ranges a broken or other 
characteristic appearance. The peaks worthy of special 
study can be added later when they are subjects of 
a lesson, or they can be located on the maps in the 
geographies. 

Look for the chief centers of drainage, — the regions 
from which many great rivers flow. North America has 
three, namely : The region about Yellowstone park for 
the Missouri, north branch of the Colorado, southeast 
branch of the Columbia, Rio Grande, etc. ; the Rocky 
mountains of British Columbia for waters reaching 
the Fraser, Columbia, Saskatchewan, Athabasca and 
Mackenzie ; the Height of Land in which rise the 
Mississippi, the Red river and others. 

Now trace the beds of the great rivers shown on the 
map in the supplement. A simple device is to groove 
slightly the sand, using a pencil point, but taking care 
not to cut through to the table top. After tracing the 
rivers, begin near the mouth of each and see that the 
land actually slopes upward to the source ; also that the 
river beds lie at the lower edges of the side slopes. 
The Great Lakes may be traced with a pencil point, 
and then slightly depressed. 



34 



TEACHERS MANUAL. 



• With a thin strip of wood or any sharp edge, cut 
the relief map into two parts and sketch the cross- 
section thus made. This is an excellent device for 
teaching the slopes and the comparative heights. Let 
one cut be made across the principal highlands, and 
another following the greatest valley. Thus, in North 
America the sections may be shown from San Francisco 
to cape Hatteras, and from the mouth of the Mississippi 
to the mouth of the Mackenzie. Other sections also 
may be shown as the map is modeled on different days. 

After a little practice, teachers can model a continent 
in from five to ten minutes. Try to make the work 
simple, by omitting useless details. The hints given 
above will enable teachers to model any continent, 
using as guides the maps in the supplements of the 
geographies. 

The following table of general elevations of plateaus 
(in feet) may prove helpful in modeling : 



South America. 
Bolivia ...... 12,000 

Brazil 2,000 

Guiana ...... 2,000 

Central plain .... 250 



Asia. 



Tibet . . 
Middle Basin 
Gobi desert 
Altai . . 
Hindustan . 
Persia . . 
Asia Minor 



14,000 
3,000 
4,000 
4,000 
1,500 
4,000 
3,000 



Europe. 

Swiss 

Spanish 

Valdai hills . . . 
Scandinavian . . . 

Africa. 

Abyssinia . . 
Kongo basin . 
Zambezi basin 
Kalahari desert 
Sahara desert . 
Atlas . . . 
Central Lake region 



2,000 
2,000 
1,000 
2,000 



7,000 
2,500 
3,000 
3,000 
1,000 
2,000 
4,000 



Australia. 
The border highlands are about as high as the eastern high- 
lands in North America. 



II. ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY LESSON NOTES. 



1. Geography. 1 

To Teachers : Head the Preface of the Elementary Geog- 
raphy, and then read the rest of the book, in order to 
get the general plan of the work. Pages 1 to SIf of 
this Manual suggest methods of teaching the lessons, 
and should be studied with care. 

Teachers who wish to gain fuller knowledge of the 
topics treated in the Elementary Greography may derive 
help from the lessons on the same topics in the larger 
geography. Refer to the index of the latter. 

Study each lesson and make it your own. No book 
of methods can take the place of live thought. 

Find out what each lesson teaches. Make note of 
the facts that are to be brought out by the class. 

Think how best to throw light on these facts, — 
whether by pictures, by short stories or by crayon 
sketches. Above all, know your school district. Be 
ever alert to direct pupils to objects that they can see 
or handle, — to hills, brooks, flowers, animals, people. 

Let each lesson grow out of the one preceding it. 

1 All number and title references in part II of this Manual are to 
pages and lessons in the Elementary Geography. The letter M placed 
after figures (thus, page 9 M) refers to this Manual. 

35 



36 teachers' manual 

Forge a chain of thought and each link will help to 
hold all others in memory. 

The work of making a definition is of great value to 
pupils when they have ideas to classify. Such work 
then tends to vivify and to relate ideas. 

Thoughtful teachers no longer treat pupils as if they 
were parrots to chatter words. The objects themselves 
are studied, and not their mere word-shells. 

Each lesson contains a few words that are new to 
pupils. Make a list of such words and be sure that 
pupils learn the sense in which each word is used, and 
also how to pronounce it. 

Let overworked teachers bear in mind the fact that 
each minute spent in preparing a lesson saves ten minutes 
in teaching it. 

The first lesson in the geography aims to interest pu- 
pils in the study and to give an inkling of its meaning. 

Lead pupils to talk about parts of the earth that they 
have seen. Webs of spiders and cocoons of moths will 
give an idea of the work of silkworms. See Arabs and 
camels on pages 46 and 47. A sandy field will serve 
to illustrate desert ; see also pages 151 and 152. Lead 
pupils to make a collection of spices ; see page 65. 
Talk about the land of the Eskimo and seal ; see pages 
43 and 44. Flax, thistle or milkweed will help to 
teach cotton. See mountains on page 13. 

Do not teach all the above in one lesson. 

For pronunciation of names of places and of other 
words used in the Elementary Geography, see supple- 
ment. If pupils are to use the Pronouncing Word List, 
they should be trained to pronounce the key words. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 37 

2. Hills and Valleys. 

The purpose of this lesson is to lead pupils to look 
for hills and valleys near home. 

Running water shows which way land slants. 

How does a hill differ from a valley f This question 
does not call for definitions. Pupils can discover that 
on a hill the sides meet at the top, while in a valley 
they meet at the bottom ; that a hill rises above the 
land near it, while a valley is lower than the land at its 
sides ; that water runs away from hills, and into valleys. 
A few simple questions will help to bring out these and 
other thoughts. Do not expect too much at first. 

Pupils can draw hills and valleys, on the blackboards. 
The sand tables, now in use in many schools, will help 
to illustrate this lesson. 

3. Brooks and Rivers. 

To show that the speed of streams depends mainly 
on the slant (or slope) of the land, and to teach the 
names brook and river. 

Look for names in the pictures, page 2. Rain feeds 
these brooks. The water flows swiftly in the rapids, 
because the land is steep. Under the bridge the land 
is nearly level. 

The brooks spread over the meadow, because there is 
a hollow in it. The water fills the hollow and makes a 
pond. 

See pictures of rivers on pages 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 107 
and 151. See brooks on pages 4 and 7. 



38 TEACHEKS' MANUAL. 

4. Slopes. 

To teach the value of slopes in nature. 

Talk about the slopes near your school, and then find 
pictures of slopes in this book. This text may be used 
for an oral reading lesson. 

Pupils can discover that the pond in the meadow has 
already overflowed its banks. The water now runs off 
as fast as it flows in. In times of heavy rain the water 
may flow in faster than it can flow out. Then the 
pond will spread over more of the meadow. 

The text does not state that all ponds and lakes are 
made by brooks and rivers. 

What can pupils find in the picture ? 

5. Kinds of Soil. 

To lead pupils to observe the kinds of soil in their 
district. 

Use any kinds of soil. Let the pupils know that the 
water poured on the soil shows what becomes of some 
of the rain. 

Plants that decay help to form soil. If there is a grove 
near your school, the pupils may find leaf mold in it. 

The most important part of this lesson is that of 
interesting pupils in collecting kinds of soil. 

6. Work of Water. 

To show that water washes away soil. 
Try to teach this lesson on a rainy day. Lead pupils 
to talk about the picture. Notice the clear sky above 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 39 

the clouds. The rain shows the direction in which the 
wind is blowing. The sun lights the tops of the 
clouds. 

Have pupils seen washouts ? Have they seen roads 
cut by rain? 

Sand is too heavy for slow rills to move. Fine soil 
is lighter and is more easily carried. 

Footnote. — Weather Record. 

To train pupils to observe the weather. 

This work lays a basis for the study of climate, and 
thus saves time in the higher grades. No part of the 
entire course is more important than the making of 
these records. 

7. Loose Soil. 

To show why soil around plants should be kept 
loose. 

Let the pupils who try the experiments make a report 
to the class. 

Frost cracks and crumbles soil. 

8. Rain in the Soil. 

To teach the work of water in soil. 

Great interest can be aroused by trying some of the 
following experiments : 

Put a few kernels of corn into a bottle of water, and 
see how soon they will sprout. 

Sow a little grass or flax seed in a wet sponge. 

Put two or three potatoes in a damp cellar to sprout. 



40 teachers' manual. 

Place a sweet potato in a glass of water and keep it 
in a warm room. It will make a beautiful vine. 

Hollow out a common potato, being careful not to 
injure the " eyes " ; fill it with wet soil, and plant in it 
an ivy or other vine. 

Take good care of the plants and they will tell a 
wonderful story. 

A box of ants will prove very instructive, and pupils 
will never grow weary of watching these little toilers. 
The box should have a glass cover. Put in a few 
crumbs of bread each day. 

9. How Soil settles. 

To lead the thought to the order in which soil or 
rocky matter settles in water. 

The coarse and heavy matter settles first. The finest 
soil settles on top. 

10. Work of the Brooks. 

To show how brooks carry soil. 

The rapids, of course, roll the pebbles. They wash 
down the sand, also. If there were no pond, the brook 
would carry the mud away and deposit it somewhere in 
still water. 

11. Deltas. 

To show how deltas are made. The teacher may wish 
to read lesson 8 of the Higher Geography, and perhaps 
-the first column of page 166. 

The Greeks gave the name delta to the alluvial land 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 41 

at the mouth of the Nile, because this low land was 
shaped like the Greek letter (A) delta. The word 
channel is here used in the sense of a trough or cut in 
which water flows. See maps of the Orinoco, Ganges 
and Nile deltas, on pages 116, 138 and 148. 

It may be a good plan to turn to the maps on page 
29, and show pupils the land and sea. No names for 
the parts of the sea are now needed. 

On page 142 there is a picture of a village built in 
the delta of the Ganges. 

12. Water and Heat. 

To show the origin of clouds. 

The word vapor is often loosely used in the sense of 
cloud, fog or smoke. In this book the word is used in 
its true scientific meaning. Water vapor is water in its 
gaseous state, and, as such, is invisible. 

As the water in the bottle is heated, observe the 
bubbling or boiling. A tiny cloud can be seen coming 
from the bottle. The deposit of moisture on the cold 
glass will prove that the cloud contains water. 

The cold window will show that the breath contains 
vapor of water. The water in the tin cup goes away 
as vapor in the air. 

Pupils will readily answer that the cloud from the 
kettle is made by heating water. They may discover 
that the hot water changes into vapor, and that the 
vapor changes into this cloud. 

Do not expect too much from pupils in this lesson. 
Let them see the experiments and tell what they see. 



42 teachers' manual. 

13. Forms of Water. 

To lead pupils to observe forms of water. 

This lesson should be made very simple. The ques- 
tion of dew-point, or of saturation, need not arise. 

Tyndall uses the name water-dust for cloud. 

Snow is now thought to be frozen vapor. When 
vapor freezes upon grass, stones, etc., it forms frost. 
True frost is not frozen dew. 

Just before water freezes, it expands. Water at the 
freezing point is, therefore, lighter than that which is 
slightly warmer. The colder water rises and freezes 
over the warmer. 

The meaning of the picture is plain. Just as the 
water in the kettle is changed by heat into vapor that 
forms a cloud, so the surface of the sea or of the lake 
is changed into vapor that, in turn, forms clouds.. In 
all these cases, the vapor is in the clear space between 
the water and the cloud. 



14. Springs. 

To direct the thought to water coming out of the 
ground. 

In some places, as in swamps, the soil is filled with 
water; but in many places the water finds its way to 
springs, and thus flows out of the ground. 

Many brooks flow in dry seasons, because they are 
fed by springs. Raindrops may travel for months in 
soil before reaching a spring. 

Note that a spring is not the " place where a stream 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 43 

starts," — it is the flowing water itself. The issue of 
water horn the ground, or the beginning of the stream, 
and not the hole in the ground, is the spring. 

15. Sources of Streams. 

To show the various ways in which streams form. 

It does not seem best to discuss fully at this time 
the sources of streams shown in the pictures. Brief 
mention of each kind will suffice. The larger book of 
the series gives more details. 

One picture on page 7 shows the melting end of a 
glacier. See, also, the picture on page 52. 

Pupils may need assistance in understanding the 
picture of the glacier on page 7. The entire white 
mass, looking like a distant mountain chain, is the end 
of a great glacier. See the wide cave in the end of 
this glacier. A huge block of ice has recently fallen. 

Page 159 shows other hot springs, now partly 
destroyed. 

What can pupils discover in the pictures on page 7? 

16. Where Brooks flow. 

To teach that brooks follow slopes. 

Brooks cannot flow uphill, and so they wind around 
the high places in their paths. 

Every stream must flow downhill. 

The speed of a stream depends largely on the slope 
of the land over which it flows, as well as on the 
volume of water. 

Brooks spread out in low and level places. 



44 teachers' manual 

17. Systems and Basins. 

To prepare for the study of the basins and systems 
of the grand divisions. 

The lower picture on page 8 shows two brook basins, 
with their systems. 

Show pupils the Mississippi basin on pages. 67 and 
71. 

A basin is land ; a system is water. A basin is made 
of slopes, while a system is made of streams. A system 
drains a basin. 

Point out the great systems and basins on the map, 
page 116. 

18. The Top of a Ridge. 

To prepare for the study of divides 1 in the grand 
divisions. 

A sand table would greatly aid in impressing this 
lesson. If there is a ridge near the school, refer to it 
for all answers. 

When rain falls on the top of the ridge, part of the 
water doubtless flows into each valley. 

Each valley reaches to the top of this ridge and is 
bounded by the line forming the valley-rim. 

19. Divides. 

The aim is the same as in lesson 18. 
If possible, direct pupils to a divide near the school. 
One minute with nature is worth a day with a map. 

1 Some teachers prefer the terra water-partings. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 



45 



Have you any pictures of divides ? 

Lead pupils to trace some of the divides on the map, 
page 116. Make clear the fact that water partings may 
be on low land as well as on high ranges. 




Illustrative Lesson. — It may prove helpful to 
teachers to study this report of a lesson. 

The aim is to teach how rain is gathered into 
streams. The teacher shows to the class a map like 
the one on this page, but made in actual relief on a 
sand table. This map is made of clay or of putty, and 
is covered with a thin layer of loam. 

Water is sprinkled upon the map, and tiny streams 
form in the low places. 

Teacher. — "In what direction does every brook flow V " 

Pupils. — " It flows downhill." 
" It follows the valley." 



46 TEACHEES' MANUAL. 

" It flows from the high places to the low ones." 
" It runs down the steepest slopes." 

Teacher. — "In what part of a valley should you look for a 
brook? " 

Pupils. — " We should look in the lowest part." 

" A brook is just between the slopes." 

" It is where the slopes from both sides meet." 

Teacher. — " How much land does a brook drain ? " 

Pupils. — " It drains a valley." . 

" It drains all the land that slopes toward it." 

" Water flows from the sides of the hills into the brook." 

Teacher (sprinkling water upon the middle ridge). — " Into 
which valley does this water flow?" 
Pupils. — " It flows into both." 
" Part flows into each." 

Teacher. — " Why does not all the water flow into one valley? " 

Pupils. — " Because it can't flow uphill." 

" It must flow down the slope." 

" The land is too high between the valleys." 

The teacher now points to many parts of the map. 
and asks to which valley each part belongs. The pupils 
answer readily until the finger rests upon the divide, and 
the class is in doubt. 

Teacher. — " Can you find other places like this ? " 

Eager fingers then trace the divide between the 
vaileys. 

Teacher. — " To which valley does this line belong ? " 

Pupils. — " It doesn't belong to either." 

" It belongs to both." 

" It is just between the valleys." 

" Both valleys begin at this line." 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 



47 



Teacher. — " On which slope is this line ? " 
Pupils. — " It comes between -the slopes." 
" It is on both slopes." 
" The slopes meet at this line." 

Teacher. — " We will call this line a divide. Can you tell why? " 
Pupils. — " Because it divides the land into two valleys." 
" Because it divides the slopes." 
" It turns the rain in two directions." 

Teacher. — " Open your geographies at page 9. Point to a 
high divide that has snow upon it. Point to one on low hills. 
Can you find one on land that is nearly level?" 

Notes on the Lesson. — It had been carefully 
prepared. The teacher had a definite aim. The ques- 
tions were direct and simple. The thinking was done 
by the pupils. Each question was answered in sev- 
eral ways, showing that pupils were allowed time for 
thought. 

20. How Slopes are worn. 

To lead pupils to think of the wasting away of land- 
masses. 

Use any piece of wood that has begun to decay. 

Nearly every pebble taken out of the soil shows 
decay. A shell of soft stone surrounds the hard 
nucleus. The outer part has begun to decay. 

Pupils can find many pieces of rock in all stages of 
decay. 

Look at the ground under the eaves of buildings, 
and see how the rain has worked. 

The "rocky cliff" on page 17 has been cracked and 
crumbled by frost. 



48 teachers' manual 

The canyon (or canon) of the Colorado, page 64, and 
the gorge of Niagara, page 72, were made by running- 
water. 

21. Plains. 

To show some ways in which plains are formed. 
The teacher may receive help from lesson 6 of the 
Higher Geography . 

This Dakota grain field is part of a vast plain that 
was at one time the bed of a lake. It is thought that 
on the north this lake was shut in by a mass of ice, 
near the close of the ice age. 

In the state of Idaho alone there are about 12,000 
square miles of lava plain, like that in the picture. The 
Shoshone falls, page 11, are in this lava region. The flow 
of lava must have come through long fissures or cracks. 

The Rhine flood plain is made of soil brought down 
by the river. There are thousands of square miles of 
flood plain along the Mississippi and its branches. 

See plains on pages 37, 68, 76 and 102. The Colo- 
rado river, page 63, flows through a plateau. 

Show pupils how low plains and plateaus are pic- 
tured on maps, pages 70-71. 

Give several lessons on plains. 

22. Beds of Streams. 

To show how streams wear their beds. 

The Snake river in Idaho has worn away its bed in 
layers of lava and made beautiful falls. The cliff 
beyond the falls is made of lava and ashes. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 49 

This ice jam is in the Mississippi. The mud, sand 
and stones held by ice are left in the places where the 
ice melts. 

The portion of Niagara river that is above the falls 
flows on hard limestone. Under this, there is a thick 
bed of soft stone (shale). The falling water easily 
wears out this shale, leaving the limestone overhanging 
the gorge. From time to time the limestone breaks off 
and falls into the gorge. The picture on page 66 
shows pieces of fallen rock. 

In the little cut of Minnehaha, pupils can see layers 
of rock back of the falls. 

Stones in a river bed are rounded by being rubbed 
together. After a long time these stones will be 
ground to sand and mud. The rivers carry part of this 
rocky matter wherever they flow. 

23. Mountains. 

To teach types of mountains. 

The pictures on page 13 are as follows : . 

(A) Peak of Pico, Azores ; (B) Appalachians, near 
Asheville, North Carolina ; (C) Temples of the Virgin, 
Utah ; (D) Mt. Mitchell, North Carolina ; (E) Dolo- 
mite Mts., Austria ; (F) The Needles and Black Head, 
Les Pres, France ; (G) Mont Blanc, France ; (H) Out- 
lines of plateau in an Arizona canyon. 

Page 10 shows the Rhine valley, "long and deep," 
in a plateau. The Temples of the Virgin are merely 
fragments of a plateau. The sharp points standing near 
the " mesa " were once a part of the mesa or plateau. 



50 teachers' manual. 

Pico volcano shows plainly the cooled lava. The 
word from which crater is derived means a " dish for 
mixing," — a very apt name. It would interest pupils 
to tell them a story about Vulcan, the god of fire ; see 
any good book of myths. The eruption of Vesuvius, 
burying Pompeii, forms a basis for a good story; see 
page 147 of the Higher Geography. 

Pupils should see pictures of types of the low, 
rounded ranges, such as the Jura and Allegheny, as 
well as types of rocky ranges. Mt. Mitchell is a typi- 
cal dome, and the range pictured above it may be taken 
as a type of low, rounded mountains. The flowers that 
show in the picture of Mt. Mitchell are the royal rho- 
dodendron, the glory of the southern Appalachian 
mountains. In places these flowers cover hundreds 
of acres. 

See crests on pages 60 and 70-71. 

The soil on steep slopes is generally podr, because 
the finest part of it is washed away by rain. 

Study the pictures on page 13. Give several lessons 
on mountains. 

24. Valleys. 

To show types of valley forms. 

Do not forget that the district should be studied. 

See pictures of valleys on pages 72, 126 and 151. 
That on page 151 is a fine example of a transverse val- 
ley. It crosses a range. 

One of the pictures on page 14 shows the Hayden 
valley, in Yellowstone park. This will serve to illus- 
trate a wide valley. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 51 

The canyon of the Colorado shows the cutting of a 
river in a dry region. The banks are steep, because 
there was not enough rain to wear them very far back 
while the river gouged its bed. 

In the primary course it does not' seem best to enter 
very far into the cause of shapes, but merely to show a 
variety. The teacher, however, may be interested to read 
lesson 7 of the Higher Geography. 

Pupils can bring to school many pictures of valleys. 

Rain, streams and moist air cause the sides of valleys 
to waste away. The glacier melts as it reaches lower 
and warmer levels. See glaciers on pages 7 and 126. 

The sand table will aid greatly in the study of 
valleys. Give several lessons on valleys. 

25. Shore Forms. 

To compare the outlines of shore forms. 

Collect many pictures of shore forms. These should 
show islands, capes, bays, etc., of many shapes and 
sizes. Have pupils draw some of these shapes. 

As each form is taught, show one or more like it on 
a map. 

Make one entire lesson on islands, another on 
peninsulas, etc. 

It would be mere waste of time to search for differ- 
ences between bays and gulfs or seas. Glance at the 
map, page 24, showing the bay of Bengal, the gulf of 
Guinea and the Arabian sea. Why should one be 
called a gulf and another a bay or a sea? 

Pupils can doubtless bring many excellent pictures. 



52 teachers' manual. 

26. Work of Water on Shores. 

To show how coastlines are shaped by water. 

Gravel consists of small pebbles, and is often mixed 
with sand. 

The stones on the shore near the clay cliff came from 
the cliff. Water washes the clay from under the stones 
and they fall. 

The loose earth at the foot of the rocky cliff will in 
time be swept away by waves and tides. 

The caves in the middle cliff were made by waves. 
Seaweed protects shores from the action of waves and 
rolling stones. A coat of seaweed helps to prevent 
frost from cracking the rocks. 

The picture marked" Dunes " shows how sand has 
been drifted by winds. 

The Stones of Stennis are ruins of an old Druid tem- 
ple in Scotland. The shore around these stones is low 
and grassy. Grass prevents sand from drifting. 

Deep water is needed in harbors, in order to float 
large ships. High shores help to shut out strong winds. 

As a rule the best harbors are on rocky coasts. 
Harbors on sandy coasts are apt to be shallow and 
easily swept by gales. 

Spend two or three days on this lesson. 

27. Points of the Compass. 

To teach directions. 

Pupils can readily 'be led to discover that the sun 
does not always rise in the same place, but that it rises 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 53 

in or near the east. The sun is in the south at midday, 
and at that time casts the shortest shadows. Make the 
definite midday shadow the starting-point for teaching 
directions. 

Can pupils discover the difference in time between 
the midday and the noon of railroad time ? 

Pupils should become familiar with the directions 
indicated by letters around the compass on page 18. 

28. How Maps are made. 

To show pupils how to draw to a scale. 

No teacher will make the mistake of having pupils 
copy the plans shown in this lesson. These plans are 
intended to show pupils what parts of their own school- 
room, house, yard and district they should draw. 

29. Reading Maps. 

To show pupils how to read the outline maps in their 
geographies. 

A series of maps leading out from the pupils' own 
school district would prove more helpful than this series. 

The class can make original maps of the parts of the 
district with which they are familiar. 

Be sure that the pupils know what the lines on the 
maps represent. Each sign on a map is like a word in 
a sentence. There must be ideas behind the signs or 
there can be no thought. Map signs, like words, are 
of no use unless they help to relate ideas. 

On page 90 there is a picture of a New York water 
front. 



54 teachers' manual. 

30. Form and Size of the Earth. 

To give some idea of the form and great size of the 
earth. 

" If an ant were placed on a large balloon, do you 
think that to the tiny creature the balloon would look 
round?" This question may awaken thought on the 
part of pupils. 

Cut a very small round hole in a piece of cardboard 
and place it against a globe so that a small part of the 
surface of the globe will appear in the hole. This part 
will look level. 

A common illustration is that of a train going 
25,000 miles. Such a trip would take about a month. 

The rings on the moon are thought to be craters. 

31. What a Hill is made of. 

To direct the thought to what is beneath the surface 
of the earth. 

Lead the pupils to the thought that rocks are some- 
times covered with clay, sand or water, as well as with 
gravel. 

The water in the picture flows upon rock. Streams 
flow also, of course, upon clay, gravel or fine soil. 

By shaking pieces of sharp rock in a bottle, pupils 
have found that sand consists of little grains of rock. 

If there is no clay in the school district, omit the 
question, " What is clay ? " Pupils are not expected 
to tell the composition of clay, but merely to tell some 
of its properties : when wet, it is sticky ; when molded 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 55 

or pressed, it readily retains its shape ; when baked, it 
becomes very hard. 

32. What the Earth is made of. 

To teach what the earth is made of. 

On page 29 there are four maps of the earth. On 
these globes the mountains are greatly exaggerated, in 
order that the slopes from them may be plainly seen. 

It is not known whether the interior of the earth is 
in a liquid or in a solid state. The ball of rock may be 
solid to the center. 

33. The Air. 

To make pupils conscious of the presence of air all 
about them. 

It is the air, of course, that offers resistance to the 
falling paper. 

Pure air cannot be seen, at least in small quantities. 
The blue color of a clear sky is largely due to the 
presence of dust motes. 

We can feel air when in motion. 

34. The Shell of Air. 

To direct the thought to the earth in its shell of 
air. 

In how many ways can pupils prove that there is air 
about them ? Let pupils discuss these questions : " Is 
the air of greater use when calm or when in motion ? 
When warm or when cold ? " 



56 teachers' manual. 

35. The Poles. 

To teach directions on the globe. 

Guard against the thought that there is a line drawn 
through the earth or that there are pegs at the poles. 

Try tossing a ball into the air and discovering the 
direction in which its axis points when turning. 

Pupils will be greatly interested in meeting the 
teacher some evening to look for the pointers and the 
north star. 

It does not seem necessary to direct the attention of 
pupils to the fact that the north star is not exactly in 
line with the earth's axis, or that the axis itself is very 
slowly changing its position. The motion is so slow 
that its effect is not felt in a lifetime. 

Impress upon pupils that north is toward the north 
pole. When they can tell the directions in which all 
the arrows on page 23 are flying, there will be no 
difficulty in reading directions on all the maps in the 
geography. 

36. The Equator. 

This lesson continues the work of the preceding. 

Find the equator on each of the maps on page 23. 
Give thorough drill in reading the directions in which 
the arrows on the maps fly. 

Hold a ball in the sun, and see what part is lighted 
by the direct rays. 

At the close of this lesson turn to the colored maps 
of the continents, and find on them north, south, east 
and west. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 57 

Review often the work outlined on page 23 of the 

Elementary Geography. 

37. The World Ridge. 1 

To teach the simple unity in the world's great high- 
lands. 

A small globe in the hands of each pupil would 
prove of great value. There should be at least one 
globe in the schoolroom. 

Opposite each large relief map there is a small hey 
map, giving names that occur in the text. Other 
names can be found on the colored maps of the conti- 
nents. Show the pupils how to use the key maps. 

Train pupils to read maps. What can they read 
from the map on page 24 ? They can find the north 
pole and the equator (see page 23) ; they can tell which 
lines run north, south, east or west; they can point to 
the land and to the sea; they can find the great plains 
and the plateaus; they can show where the highest 
divides run, and where the great streams flow. Give 
the pupils a chance, and they may surprise the teacher 
with their skill in reading maps. 

By turning the book to right and left, it will be seen 
that each continent is but slightly distorted. This is, 
doubtless, the most accurate projection for making a 
map of the land areas. 

We may speak of the north pole as being not far 
from the middle of the world ridge. 

1 Some teachers prefer the term primary highland. 



58 teachers' manual. 



38. Andes Highland. 

From this time on do not let the pupils lose sight of 
the unity of the globe relief. As each new form is 
studied, show its position on the relief map on page 24. 

On page 118 there is a picture of a condor in the 
Andes. 



39. Rocky Mountain Highland. 

Look for this highland on the relief map of the 
globe, page 24. 

Pupils can easily see that the Andes highland is 
higher but narrower than the Rocky Mountain high- 
land. 

There are pictures of parts of the Rocky mountains 
on pages 26 and 62. See map on pages 70-71. 

40. Highland of Tibet. 

See picture on page 140, and map on page 138. 
The longest plains of Asia are north of Tibet. 

41. Highland of Abyssinia. 

From Asia the world range extends into Africa. A 
spur from this great ridge enters Europe, but no part 
of the divide between the great ocean basins enters 
that grand division. 

The two ends of the world ridge are at Capes Horn 
and Good Hope. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 59 

42. Slopes from the World Ridge. 

The Atlantic slopes are on the inner side of the 
world ridge. The Pacific slopes are on the outer 
side. 

Have pupils show on the map, page 24, the long and 
short slopes from each of the four great highlands in 
the world ridge. 

43. Selvas. 

On page 120 there is a scene in the selvas. 

The picture on page 27 shows natives without cloth- 
ing. From this picture pupils can readily judge that 
the air of the selvas is warm. 

Skill in reading pictures is of far greater value than 
mere memory of the text. 

44. Central Plain of North America. 

There is a picture of a grain field on page 68, and of 
a cotton field on page 76. 

The prairies are plains, but they do not form part of 
the Western plains. 

45. Tundras. 

On page 140 there is a scene on the tundras. 

The animals on page 141 live in great forests that 
grow on the plains north of Tibet. 

The word tundras appears on the key map, page 25, 
and also on page 145. 



60 teachers' manual. 

46. Desert of Sahara. 

On pages 151, 152 and 154 there are pictures of 
parts of the Sahara. 

Some parts of this desert are covered with rocks, and 
other parts with parched soil. 

47. The Continents. 

The names used in this lesson appear on the maps 
of the hemispheres, page 28. Have pupils show the 
grand divisions on the little globes pictured on pages 
28 and 29. 

See, also, map on page 24. 

48. The Oceans. 

Follow the suggestions given under lesson 47. 

Page 34 shows a junk on the Pacific. On page 44 
there is an Arctic scene. There is an Atlantic steam- 
ship on page 85. 

The Pacific is the largest ocean. The Atlantic is 
next in size. 

49. The Bottom of the Sea. 

Lead pupils to think of a coastline as the line where 
the land slopes under the sea. This line shows how 
far water rises on the slopes of the grand divisions. 

The land is being constantly worn by streams and 
waves, while the sea is ever spreading material evenly 
over its bottom. The work on the land consists largely 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 61 

of tearing down. The work in the deep sea is that of 
building. Thus we see why the bottom of the sea is 
not cut and gullied like the surface of the land. 

Bring out the thought that the characteristic appear- 
ance of the sea-bottom is that of a vast smooth plain. 
There are broad .plateaus under the sea, but they have 
not the appearance of land plateaus that have been 
worn by rain. 

Dwell upon the darkness of the deep sea and its 
coldness. Look for pictures of fish peculiar to deep 
sea. 

The shores of the grand divisions are the feeding 
grounds of many of the best food fishes. Waves churn 
and help to grind sea plants, and thus prepare food for 
fish. 

50. Coral Islands. 

Encourage pupils to collect specimens of coral, 
Look for pictures of other coral islands. 

On pages 55 and 56 there are pictures and descrip- 
tions of breadfruit, cocoanut and banana. These are 
the chief food plants on many coral islands. 

This lesson illustrates the grinding power of waves. 
It also shows what becomes of part of the land waste. 



51. Home Lesson for a Hot Day. 

In some places teachers can take their pupils out 
into the fields to study this lesson. 

Encourage as many as possible to try the experi- 
ments. 



62 teachers' manual. 

52. How the Air is heated. 

Pupils that try the experiments named in lesson 51 
will learn most from lesson 52. 

It is thought that the sun's rays pass through pure 
air without heating it. 

The leading thought of this lesson is this : The sun's 
rays do not heat the air directly, but the surface of the' 
earth changes the sun's rays to heat, and gives the heat 
to the air. Clouds and dust help to perform the same 
work. 

53. How the Earth is heated. 

Pupils should be led to observe the varying path of 
the sun. Such work would prove of far greater value 
to them than would any text that could be written. . 

Take for a problem the question : At what time of 
year does the sun shine the shortest distance into a room 
at midday ? 

If your schoolroom has no south window, try the 
experiment regularly at any hour of the day when the 
sun enters an east or a west window. 

Once a week at the appointed hour mark on the floor 
the inner edge of the sunlight. This may be done by 
driving small tacks into the floor. 

Suppose that the record is begun in early autumn. 
Week after week pupils can discover that the sun runs 
lower and lower, for its light reaches farther into the 
room. At length, in the latter part of December, it 
remains the same for a few days. Then the path of 
light becomes shorter, and we know that the sun is 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 63 

rising higher and higher in the sky. In June the sun- 
light reaches the same point for several days, and then 
the shadows of objects begin to lengthen. 

The answer to our question is: The latter part of 
June. This answer is of very little consequence, un- 
less pupils have been led to observe the changes tak- 
ing place in nature during the passing seasons. They 
can discover that the path of the sun determines each 
season, and this fact is the key to the study of how the 
earth is heated. 

Mark the shadows and study the seasons, and pupils 
will easily comprehend the lessons on belts of heat. 

If the above work is done, the text of this lesson 
need not be studied. 

Lessons 54 to 57. 

These lessons need occupy but little time. Most 
teachers will doubtless prefer not to try to explain in 
this primary course the relation of the earth's revolu- 
tion on a fixed axis to the changes of season. It would 
seem better to leave that philosophy for the more 
mature minds to grapple. 

Keep the work in these lessons very simple. Use 
the text for oral reading and discussion. Use a globe 
to illustrate briefly lesson 36. 

58. Belts of Heat. 

For the convenience of teachers that wish to include 
in this course the study of the zones of light, a lesson 
has been added in the supplement, page iii. 



64 teachers' manual. 

The map on page 24 shows what river basins are 
crossed by the equator. 

The rivers that flow into the Arctic ocean are those 
that drain most of the northern parts of Asia, Europe 
and North America. Pupils do not yet know the 
names of these rivers. 

Pupils need not study the exact bounds of the heat 
belts. It will be sufficient if they learn which of the 
large river basins are wholly or in part in the various 
belts. The questions in the lesson will serve to direct 
this study. 

In the larger book of this series the lines of heat 
will be studied. The aim of this lesson is to prepare 
the way for the study of plant belts. 

59. The Trade Winds. 

Within a few years many of the theories relating to 
causes of winds have been set aside. Ferrel's work 
has placed this study on a new footing. 

Pupils can easily be led to discover the principle 
of motion resulting from difference in pressure or 
"weight," but the application of this principle and of 
Ferrel's theory of the effect of the earth's rotation 
seems to be far beyond the grasp of primary pupils. 
The difficulty will be evident to teachers that are 
familiar with Davis' Elementary Meteorology or with 
any other modern treatise on the winds. 

It may not be amiss to caution teachers not to over- 
look the fact that the polar regions are areas of low 
pressure, and that the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn 
are in or near belts of very high pressure. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 65 

Lesson 59, in the Elementary Geography, gives a 
simple outline of the more important winds, and most 
teachers will doubtless be content not to press the 
subject further, in the primary grades. 

60. The Gulf Stream. 

The causes of ocean currents and their general plan 
of circulation are clearly not within the scope of this 
book. It has been thought best, however, to treat of 
two great currents, because of their influence upon the 
climate of important countries. 

Find on the maps all places mentioned in this lesson. 

Lessons 61 to 69. 

The aim of these lessons is to interest pupils in the 
study of the races, and to give some knowledge of the 
home life of people in other lands. 

The stories deal with race characteristics. Inciden- 
tally, they introduce facts concerning the climate, plants 
and animals of these lands. 

The pictures should be studied very carefully. At 
the end of each lesson a few questions are asked. They 
are answered in the text or in the pictures, and may 
take the place of topics. 

The last question under lesson 65 aims to bring out 
the thought that the clothing of each race is best suited 
to the climate and habits of that particular race. 

Locate on the map the scene of each lesson. 



66 TEACH EKfe' MANUAL. 

70. Homes of the Races. 

Study the natural boundaries of races in the Old 
World. Note that high chains of mountains separate 
the yellow and white races in Asia. Nearly all Europe 
belongs to the white race. Roughly speaking, the 
desert of Sahara divides the lands of the white and the 
black races in Africa. The Malays and Indians are 
-often classed with the yellow race. 

The Malays are chiefly an island people. 

The Eskimos are classed with the yellow race. Peo- 
ple of the black race are scattered along the warm 
coasts of America. About one tenth of the people in 
the United States are Negroes. 

There are only about 250,000 Indians in the United 
States, but the number of people of this race in Mexico, 
Central America and South America runs far into 
millions. 

71. Homes of the Nations. 

Use this lesson for oral reading. It does not need 
close study. 

A nation is a large family. 

Can the teacher name a country that is not wholly 
or in part bounded by natural features ? In the study 
of countries locate, as far as possible, by natural features 
which have shielded the nations. 

With slight changes the story in this lesson would 
apply equally well to the Indians of America, to the 
Negroes in Africa, or to any other race. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 67 

72. Where Plants grow. 

The aim is to direct the thought to the relation of 
plants to soil, water and heat. This will help pupils 
to understand the distribution of plants. 

Modify the questions in this lesson to suit the plants 
that grow near the schoolhouse. The purpose is to 
direct the thought to conditions of plant life. 

73. Plants of the Hot Belt. 

Study the pictures under this lesson. See also the 
Hot Belt on page 56, and the pictures on pages 23, 119 
and 122. See map on page 33. Collect spices. 

74. Plants of" the Warm Belts. 

See the pictures on pages 75, 76 and 141. 
Interesting language lessons may be given on the 
products of these belts. Refer to map on page 33. 

75. Plants of the Cool Belts. 

Find on the map, page 33, the cool belt of the south. 
A glance will show that it is scarcely worth notice. 
See pictures on pages 56, 78, 79 and 80. 

76. Plants of the Cold Belts. 

The cold belt of the south calls for but slight notice. 
See pictures on pages 43, 44 and 56. 
For the food of the reindeer, see page 42. 



68 teachers' manual. 

77. Structure of Animals. 

The aim of this lesson is to show how animals are 
fitted to their habitats or native haunts. Study a few 
of the common animals and discover their peculiarities. 
Note their habits, and discover the relation of their 
structure to these habits. 

The pictures on page 57 may suggest a line of study.- 

78. Animals and their Homes. 

The text of this lesson touches upon the structure of 
animals, their means of defense, etc. 

Pupils can doubtless give many other illustrations of 
each of these topics. The pictures on pages 58 and 
59 will suggest many interesting stories. 

79. Animals of the Heat Belts. 

Lesson 78 aims to show the distribution of a few 
of the largest and most familiar animals. Notice the 
coastlines in the picture. Pupils will be deeply inter- 
ested in collecting pictures and stories of animals. 

80. Uses of Plants and Animals. 
Use the questions for oral or written language lessons. 

81. Surface of North America. 

See Preface-note on spelling and use of capital letters. 
This lesson is one of a series of map studies. See 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 69 

also lessons 112, 113, 119, 125 and 139. These ques- 
tions are so graded that the pupils soon know how to 
read a map without assistance. 

Teachers should not lose sight of this growing power 
to read maps, for it is worth much to pupils. 

Pupils can show on the map, page 24, what part of 
the world ridge is in North America. 

It will be interesting to note what the relief map 
tells your pupils. Will they see that the great high- 
land is on the west side ; that there is a small highland 
along the Atlantic coast ; that between these highlands 
stretches a vast plain ; that the coastline is more broken 
on the north and east than on the west ; that the longest 
rivers are east of the great highland ? Teachers may 
need to ask a few guiding questions, but let pupils do 
all they can without such help. 

Train pupils to use the key maps. 

The picture of the globe on page 61 is one of a series 
intended to keep comparative sizes and relative positions 
before the eyes of the pupils. These globes show the 
relative positions of both land and water areas. Ask 
questions leading pupils to study the globes. In addi- 
tion to North America the globe on page 61 shows parts 
of four other grand divisions and of three oceans. 
These furnish a " setting" for North America. 

In the supplement there is a map that will serve as a 
guide for modeling and drawing. Many teachers prefer 
not to have pupils model the grand divisions in the 
primary course. Pupils can readily learn to sketch 
these maps. Large maps modeled in sand by teachers 
are of great assistance. 



70 teachers' manual. 



Lessons 82 to 89. 



These lessons may well be studied on lesson-plans 
3. 2 or 4, outlined on pages 7 to 14 of this Manual. 
Instead of writing topics on the blackboard, the teacher 
may direct pupils to use two, three or more of the 
topics printed at the end of lessons 82 to 87. Lesson- 
plan 3 is specially recommended for these. Pupils may 
make their own topics for lessons 88 and 89, or else 
follow lesson-plan 4 or 5, pages 13-15 M. 

Lead pupils to study the pictures. Use also the 
pictures between pages 87 and 112. 

Locate all features and places on the maps. Use 
the large relief map of the United States, pages 70-71, 
and its key map on page 69, or the colored key map on 
pages 66-67. 

Ottertail range is part of the Rocky mountains in 
Canada, not far from the United States border. 

These Mexican children live in straw huts, and dress 
in cotton cloth. Their dress shows that the air is 
warm. Lead pupils to think of steep and rugged slopes 
among the Rocky mountains, and of the difficulties of 
travel in this region. The donkey, or burro, with his 
load, will form a good subject for a language lesson. 

Pikes peak is not far from the city of Denver. See 
map, page 109. 

Formerly the name was spelled Pike's, but by a rul- 
ing of the United States Board on Geographic Names 
(Report of 1892) the apostrophe was dropped from this 
and all similar names in the United States, such as St. 
Marys river, Longs peak, Marthas Vineyard (see Preface). 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 71 

The Mississippi basin is roughly bounded as follows : 
On the west by the Rocky mountains, on the north by 
the Height of Land and a low swell that runs south of 
the Great Lakes, and on the east by the Appalachian 
highland. 

The word Height may convey a wrong impression to 
pupils. The grain field on page 10 is near this Height, 
and many fields like this are on the Height of Land. 

The Welland canal joins lake Erie with lake Ontario. 
The change in level between these lakes is about 300 
feet. 

In this elementary course it does not seem desirable 
to spend much time studying the region north of the 
Height of Land. 

90. Heat and Rainfall. 

Teachers are recommended to read lessons 19, 20, 
21 and 22 of the Higher Geography. Very little of 
the work there mentioned can be given to pupils using 
the Elementary Geography, except perhaps the sugges- 
tions for observations, but the text may help to pre- 
pare teachers to explain some parts of lesson 90 in the 
Elementary Geography, if pupils question closely. 

Lessons 91 to 99. 

These lessons treat of the leading industries of the 
nation. The maps are based on government reports. 

The darkest tint on each map shows the region of 
greatest production. The aim should be to fix in mind 
the regions whose products affect commerce. 



72 teachers' manual. 

Refer often to the relief map on pages 70-71. 

Collect pictures that illustrate these great industries. 
In this work pictures are of far greater value than any 
text that can be written. 

Ask pupils to bring specimens of products, and use 
them in giving the lessons. 

These lessons need constant reviews in order to fix 
in mind the leading facts. 

100. Routes of Trade. 

Use this lesson for oral reading, then let pupils dis- 
cuss the topics at the end of these notes. 

Study the pictures. The steamship plies between 
New York and Liverpool. This freight train is cross- 
ing the Rocky Mountain highland. See the snow 
beside the tracks. 

The canal boats are in the Erie canal. 

Some teachers may think best to teach a few of the 
trunk lines of railroad across the United States. 

Lessons 101 to 111. 

From this part of the geography to the end, the text 
of the various lessons follows the same general plan, 
namely, the study of groups of states and of countries 
and cities from the standpoint of industries and matters 
of special importance. Perhaps the best topics that can 
be used are the names of cities printed in heavy-face 
type, as Boston, and names of states and countries 
printed in capital letters, as Alaska. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 73 

It is perhaps needless to seek further to impress upon 
teachers the great value of constant reference to the 
maps. The pupils should locate every city, trying if 
possible to state its position near some natural feature 
which affects its industries, as New York, at the mouth 
of the Hudson ; Chicago, on lake Michigan. 

In beginning the study of any section or coun- 
try, make use of the old to help build the new ; 
that is, review briefly the surface, climate, leading 
industries, etc., and let the study lead as far as pos- 
sible to the reasons for the growth of the city, state 
or country. 

In many cities and towns the school officers or the 
teachers may not deem it necessary to study in detail 
every city named in the text; but if selection is made 
of leading cities to receive close study, it is suggested 
that the locations of the others be learned. 



112. Surface of South America. 

Before studying the map questions, see how much 
information pupils can get from the study of the relief 
map itself ; then perhaps assign the map studies. 

Pupils will readily answer that the middle part of 
the Andes highland looks widest and highest. 

On the west slope of the Andes there are no long 
rivers, because the slope is steep and short. 

Ask questions leading pupils to study the globes. In 
addition to South America the globe on page 117 shows 
parts of three other grand divisions and of four oceans. 
These furnish a " setting " for South America. 



74 teachers' manual. 

Compare the two globes on pages 61 and 117, 
and tell which is the larger, South America or North 
America. 

See supplement for guide maps for drawing and 
modeling. These maps show also the comparative 
areas. 

Lessons 113 to 118. 

Read first three paragraphs of suggestions under les- 
sons 82 to 89, preceding. 

The pictures on page 58 show some of the animals 
of the Amazon valley. 

The lily in the picture on page 120 is the Victoria 
regia. The stork is standing on a lily leaf. Note how 
the edges of the leaf are turned up. 

A great deal of Brazilian coffee goes under other 
foreign names. Most of the coffee used in this coun- 
try is raised in Brazil. Comparatively little comes to 
the United States from Java. 

This story teaches that the climate of Brazil is warm 
and moist. 

Notice the blossoms and berries together on a sprig 
of coffee. This growth is characteristic of the coffee 
tree. 

The general slope of the Plata basin is towards the 
south. 

Rio de la Plata means river of silver. 

The basin of the Amazon is about twice as large as 
that of the Plata. See tables of statistics in the sup- 
plement. A part of the highland of Brazil divides 
these basins. 



ELEMENTAL Y GEOGRAPHY. 75 

119. Surface of Europe. 

Read suggestions under lesson 81, preceding. 

Are pupils learning to read maps ? Ask guiding 
questions, if necessary. 

Europe is on the inner side of the world ridge. 

What grand divisions and oceans are shown on the 
globe, page 125 ? Compare the area of Europe with that 
of each of the other grand divisions studied. See little 
globes. 

The model map of Europe is in the supplement. 

Lessons 120 to 125. 

Read the first three paragraphs under lessons 82 to 
89, preceding. 

By this time the pupils should be thoroughly familiar 
with the use of topics, and should know just how to go 
to work on a new lesson. All places and features 
should be located. 

On page 13 there are two views of the Alps, — Mt. 
Blanc (G) and the peaks near Les Pres, France (F). 
Mt. Blanc is in France. 

The highest peak in Europe is Elburz, in the Cau- 
casus range. 

Study the pictures on page 126. The Rhine view 
shows the famous vineyards opposite Bingen. At the 
top of the bluff, or palisade, may be seen the great 
Germania monument. 

The long glacier on page 126 is the Viesch glacier. 
The medial moraine is very clearly shown. 



7t> TEACHEBS' MANUAL. 

126. Surface of Asia. 

Read suggestions under lesson 81, preceding. Do 
not forget to lead pupils to read the relief map itself 
before studying the map questions. 

The longest slope is north of Tibet. 

For directions, refer to maps on page 23. 

What continents appear on the little globe on 
page 139? 

The model map of Asia is in the supplement. 

Lessons 127 to 133. 

Read the first three paragraphs of suggestions under 
lessons 82 to 89, preceding. 

Refer constantly to relief and political maps. Study 
the pictures. 

Study the picture on page 140. Mt. Dunkia is in the 
Himalayas, north of Calcutta. This peak is about four 
miles and a half in height. 

The natives in the picture of the tundras are Sam- 
oyedes. They belong to the yellow race. What does 
the picture show about their habits ? 

The Ganges is the sacred river of India. 

Pupils will draw the tea plant forming the decoration 
of the round picture on page 141. What can they find 
out about the beaver? The picture on page 142 shows 
a typical Hindu village near Calcutta. 

134. Surface of Africa. 
Read suggestions under lesson 81, preceding. 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 77 

Do not neglect the world ridge map, page 24. 

Can pupils read the relief map of Africa without 
assistance ? 

Have pupils learned how to read the little globes ? 

What can they read on the globe map, page 149? 

The model map of Africa is in the supplement. 
Compare model maps and see how continents compare 
in area. 

Lessons 135 to 141. 

Read the first three paragraphs under lessons 82 to 
89, preceding. 

Study the maps and pictures. The Suez canal has 
no locks. This great ditch is about one hundred miles 
in length. 

The Nile view shows the landing place at Assouan. 
Several caravan routes lead to this place, because there 
are no cataracts in the river below. 

The scene in the Atlas mountains (page 151) shows 
a Moorish town, and a fine example of a valley worn 
through a mountain range. 

The pictures of the Nile, page 152, were taken near 
Cairo, looking towards the pyramids of Gizeh. The 
nearest of the three pyramids is the famous Cheops. 

142. Australasia. 

Pupils should by this time have learned to describe a 
relief map fairly well, without using the map questions. 
As this is the last of the continents to be studied in 
relief, it might be well to ask for a written description 



78 teachers' manual. 

of the surface, to test each pupil's power to read such 
a map. 

The position of Australia, relative to the world ridge, 
is shown on the key map, page 25. See also map on 
page 28. This continent is on the outer side of the 
great ridge. For comparative areas, see the model maps 
in the supplement. Compare globe maps also. 

Lessons 143 to 145. 

Use maps and pictures. Locate places and features. 
The eucalyptus shown on page 158 is a typical Aus- 
tralian tree, though it now grows abundantly in Cali- 
fornia and other western states. The tree sheds its 
bark, instead of its leaves. 

Locate the Solomon islands, east of New Guinea. 
Samoa is still farther out in the Pacific. 

These hot springs of New Zealand are known as the 
" white terraces." They have been partly destroyed. 

Two or three valuable review lessons may be given, 
looking especially to the comparison of features. In 
one lesson the continents and oceans, as to sizes and 
shapes ; the plateaus ; the plains ; the great rivers, as 
to length and direction, etc. 



